Charge pump stability control

ABSTRACT

During its first and second residence times, corresponding first and second currents flow between a charge pump and a circuit that connects to one of the charge pump&#39;s terminals. Based on a feedback measurement from the charge pump, a controller adjusts these first and second currents.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

Under 35 USC 120 this application is a continuation-in-part of U.S.application Ser. No. 16/037,362, filed on Jul. 17, 2017, which is acontinuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/850,117, filed on Dec. 21,2017, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/126,073,filed on Sep. 14, 2016, which is the national phase under 35 USC 371 ofInternational Application No. PCT/US2015/019860, filed on Mar. 11, 2015which under 35 USC 119, claims the benefit of the Mar. 14, 2014 prioritydate of U.S. Provisional Application 61/953,303 and the Mar. 14, 2014priority date of U.S. Provisional Application 61/953,270, the contentsof which are herein incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF DISCLOSURE

This invention relates to power converters, and in particular, to chargepumps.

BACKGROUND

In many circuits, the power that is available to drive the circuit maynot be in a form that the circuit demands. To correct this, it is usefulto provide a power converter that converts the available power into aform that conforms to the circuit's requirements.

One common type of power converter is a switch-mode power converter. Aswitch-mode power converter produces a voltage by switching reactivecircuit elements into different electrical configurations using a switchnetwork. A switched-capacitor power converter is a type of switch-modepower converter that primarily utilizes capacitors to transfer energy.Such converters are called “charge pumps.” The capacitors are called“pump capacitors.”

In operation, a charge pump transitions from one pump-state to the nextin a sequence of pump-states. Each pump-state is characterized by aresidence time in which the charge pump remains in that pump-state, andtransition times, in which the charge pump is between pump-states. Thesum of the residence times for all pump-states and the interveningtransition times between those pump-states is the period for one cycleof the charge pump.

For correct operation, each pump capacitor should begin and end eachcycle with zero change in charge. If this is not the case, charge willaccumulate on the pump capacitor over the course of several cycles inthe case of positive non-zero change in charge. Since the voltage acrossa capacitor is linearly proportional to the charge, this chargeaccretion/depletion will cause the voltage across the pump capacitor todrift over time.

In many charge pumps, a switch connects adjacent pump capacitors. Thevoltage across the switch thus depends on the voltages across adjacentpump capacitors. If voltages across these capacitors drift unevenly, thevoltage across the switch may exceed its rating. This may cause theswitch to overheat, thus destroying the switch, and the charge pump aswell.

Procedures for managing charge on a pump capacitor depend in part on howthe charge got there. In general, there are two ways to put charge intoa capacitor: using a voltage source or using a current source.

When a voltage source is used, management of charge is relativelysimple. The charge present at a capacitor is a linear function of thevoltage. Thus, dropping the voltage to zero is sufficient to remove thecharge from the capacitor.

When a current source is used, management of charge is not so simple.This is because the charge on a pump capacitor is related to an integralof the current, and not to the instantaneous value of current.

On Nov. 8, 2012, Patent Publication WO 2012/151466, which isincorporated herein by reference, made public configurations of chargepumps in which one terminal was connected to a regulator. Because of itsinductor, and because of the relevant time scales associated with theswitches involved, as far as these charge pump configurations areconcerned, the regulator behaved like a current source. This mademanagement of how much charge is in the pump capacitors morechallenging.

SUMMARY

The inventive subject matter described herein relates to stabilizing acharge pump coupled with a current source or load by ensuring that eachpump capacitor of the charge pump begins a cycle in the same conditionfor every cycle. This avoids charge accretion that occurs when residualcharge from the end of a first cycle is added to the beginning of asecond cycle, thus causing the voltage of the capacitor to drift overtime.

In one aspect, the invention features an apparatus comprising a chargepump having a capacitor array, a switch circuit, a first terminal, asecond terminal connected to a circuit, and a controller. first andsecond currents flow between the charge pump and the circuit duringrespective first and second residence times of the charge pump. Based ona feedback measurement from the charge pump, the controller adjusts thefirst and second currents.

In some embodiments, the controller controls accumulation of chargewithin the charge pump by controlling current between the charge pumpand the circuit.

In other embodiments, the controller adjusts the first and secondcurrents in an attempt to cause a difference between charge transferredbetween the load and the charge pump during the first residence time andcharge transferred between the load and the charge pump during thesecond residence time to remain constant.

Also among the embodiments are those in which the controller isconfigured to modulate a duty cycle of a switch during the first andsecond residence times. This switch selectively enables and suppressescharge transfer between the circuit and the charge pump.

In yet other embodiments, the controller adjusts the first and secondcurrents by causing current to flow only during a selected portion ofthe first residence time and a selected portion of the second residencetime.

Additional embodiments include those in which the feedback measurementfrom the charge pump that the controller uses when adjusting the firstand second currents is a measurement made at the second terminal.

Further embodiments include those in which the controller adjusts thefirst and second currents in an effort to maintain a constant interstatedifferential.

In still other embodiments, the controller adjusts the first and secondcurrents in an effort to maintain a constant interstate differential anda constant interstate summation.

Among the embodiments are those in which the controller adjusts thefirst and second currents in an effort to maintain a constant interstatedifferential and to cause the circuit to maintain a constant averagevoltage.

Other embodiments include those in which the controller modulates thefeedback measurement with a periodic signal that is harmonically relatedto a frequency that is the reciprocal of the duration of a charge pumpcycle that includes the first and second residence times. This resultsin adjusting the first and second currents.

In other embodiments, the controller causes the first current to flowduring a time that is shorter than the first residence time.

Additional embodiments include those in which the controller actuallysuppresses charge transfer between the charge pump and the circuitduring a residence time in which the charge pump is otherwise ready toengage in charge transfer with the circuit.

In yet other embodiments, the controller uses a feedback signal toattempt to maintain a constant average voltage and offsets the feedbackcontrol signal by different amounts at different times prior to usingthe feedback control signal to attempt to maintain the constant averagevoltage.

In still other embodiments, the controller uses a feedback signal toattempt to maintain a constant average voltage and causes a time-varyingoffset between the feedback control signal and a signal that isindicative of operation of a switch in the circuit.

In some embodiments, the controller receives a first signal forproviding a basis for the controller to modulate a duty cycle of aswitch that connects the charge pump to the circuit to achieve aconstant interstate differential within the charge pump and a secondsignal for providing a basis for modulating the duty cycle to cause thepower converter to maintain a constant average voltage. In suchembodiments, the controller further includes a modulator for modulatingthe first signal with a periodic waveform thereby generating a modulatedfirst signal and uses that the modulated first signal to create atime-varying offset relative to the second signal.

In still other embodiments, the controller relies upon a feedback signalto maintain a constant average voltage of the power converter andmodulates a signal received from the charge pump to generate atime-varying signal and to overlay the time-varying signal on thefeedback signal.

In yet other embodiments, the controller introduces a time-varyingoffset in an effort to cause the power converter to maintain a constantaverage voltage. In such embodiments, for modulating a duty cycle of aswitch in an effort to maintain a constant average voltage of the powerconverter, the controller relies upon a difference between a feedbacksignal and a signal indicative of operation of the switch and thenintroduces a time-varying offset into the difference.

Also among the embodiments are those in which the controller receives afirst signal and a second signal. The first signal provides a basis forthe controller to modulate a duty cycle of a switch that connects thecharge pump to the circuit to achieve a constant interstate differentialwithin the charge pump. The second signal provides a basis formodulating the duty cycle to cause the power converter to maintain aconstant average voltage. In these embodiments, the controller alsoincludes a modulator, a comparator, and an adder. The modulatormodulates the first signal with a periodic waveform, thereby generatinga modulated first signal. The adder offsets the second signal by themodulated first signal, thereby generating an offset signal. Thecomparator compares the offset signal with a signal indicative ofoperation of the switch and outputs a duty-cycle control signal based onthe comparison.

In other embodiments, the controller receives first and second signals.The first signal provides a basis for the controller to modulate a dutycycle of a switch that connects the charge pump to the circuit toachieve a constant interstate differential within the charge pump. Thesecond signal provides a basis for modulating the duty cycle to causethe power converter to maintain a constant average voltage. In theseembodiments, the controller includes a modulator, an adder, and acomparator. The modulator modulates the first signal with a periodicwaveform thereby generating a modulated first signal and the adderoffsets a signal indicative of operation of the switch by the modulatedfirst signal. The comparator compares the offset signal with the secondsignal and outputs a duty-cycle control signal based on the comparison.

These and other features of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing detailed description, and the accompanying drawings, in which:

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a single-phase charge pump;

FIG. 2 shows a time-line associated with the operation of thesingle-phase charge pump of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 shows circuit configurations associated with a cycle of thesingle-phase charge pump of FIG. 1;

FIG. 4 shows a two-phase charge pump;

FIG. 5 shows circuit configurations associated with a cycle of thetwo-phase charge pump of FIG. 4;

FIG. 6 shows a first controller for controlling pump-state residencetimes in the charge pump of FIG. 1;

FIG. 7 shows a second controller for controlling pump-state residencetimes in the charge pump of FIG. 1;

FIG. 8 shows an implementation of the second feedback-circuit in FIG. 7;

FIG. 9 shows an implementation of the second timing circuit in FIG. 7;

FIG. 10 shows a third controller for controlling pump-state residencetimes in the charge pump of FIG. 1

FIG. 11 shows a fourth controller for controlling current at a load;

FIG. 12 shows a fifth controller for controlling current at a regulator;

FIG. 13 shows a sixth controller that controls a switching network forattaining a desired capacitance for a pump capacitor in FIG. 1;

FIG. 14 shows a seventh controller that controls a switching network forattaining a desired stabilization capacitance;

FIG. 15 shows an eighth controller that controls interstate differentialto ensure charge balancing across different pump states duringcharge-pump operation;

FIG. 16 shows a series-parallel charge pump coupled to a buck converter;

FIG. 17 shows the inductor current that arises when the control systemof FIG. 15 causes the first and second switch-states to have equaldurations;

FIG. 18 shows the inductor current that arises when the control systemof FIG. 15 causes the first and second switch-states to have unequaldurations;

FIG. 19 shows details of one embodiment of the eighth feedback-circuitshown in FIG. 15;

FIG. 20 shows details of another embodiment of the eighthfeedback-circuit shown in FIG. 15; and

FIG. 21 shows the eighth feedback-circuit shown in

FIG. 19 configured to rely on a comparison with a reference voltagerather than with a differential voltage

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 shows a first example of a charge pump 10 coupled to a loadcircuit 12 that is modeled as an ideal current source IX. The chargepump 10 is a multi-stage charge pump, also known as a cascademultiplier. Although the current source IX is shown as drawing currentfrom the charge pump 10, this distinction amounts to a mere sign change.The important feature of a current source IX is that it relentlesslydrives a constant flow of current.

Throughout this specification, reference will be made to a “currentsource.” As is well known, an ideal “current source” is an abstractionused for circuit analysis that does not in fact exist. However, for thetime scales of interest, there are a variety of devices that effectivelyfunction as a current source. Examples include regulators, such aslinear regulators, DC motors, depending on the load, and an IDAC, whichis an active circuit that sets the current through LEDs. Thus,throughout this specification, “current source” or “current load” isunderstood to mean real devices, including but not limited to thoseenumerated herein, that effectively function as a current source.

The load circuit 12 can be viewed as drawing or providing a non-zeroconstant current, or a pulsed current that alternates between twovalues, one of which can be zero. Charge transfer occurs whenever thecurrent through the load circuit 12 is non-zero. When the current isnon-zero and constant, the charge transfer will be referred to as “softcharging,” or “adiabatic charging.”

The charge pump 10 has first and second terminals 14, 16. One terminalis a high-voltage terminal that carries a low current. The otherterminal is a low-voltage terminal that carries a high current. In theparticular example described herein, the second terminal 16 is thelow-voltage terminal. However, in other embodiments, the second terminal16 is the high-voltage terminal.

Between the terminals 14, 16 are four identical pump capacitors: outerpump capacitors C1, C4 and inner pump capacitors C2, C3. A firstphase-node P1 couples with the negative terminal of the first and thirdpump capacitors C1, C3, and a second phase-node P2 couples with thenegative terminal of the second and fourth pump capacitors C2, C4.

A first switch-set 1 and a second switch-set 2 cooperate to cause thecharge pump 10 to reconfigure the pump capacitors C1-C4 between firstand second pump-states 18, 20 as shown in FIG. 2. Through operation ofthe first and second switch-sets 1, 2, the charge pump 10 maintains atransformation ratio M:N between the voltages at the first and secondterminals 14, 16. In the particular charge pump 10 shown in FIG. 1, thetransformation ratio is 5:1.

In operation, the charge pump 10 executes a series of charge-pumpcycles. Each charge-pump cycle has a first pump-state 18 and a secondpump-state 20, as shown in FIG. 2. To transition from the firstpump-state 18 to the second pump-state 20, the switches in the firstswitch-set 1 are opened and the switches in the second switch-set 2 areclosed. Conversely, to transition from the second pump-state 20 into thefirst pump-state 18, the switches in the first switch-set 1 are closedand the switches in the second switch-set 2 are opened.

FIG. 2 shows the configuration of the switches as “Config X/Y” where Xand Y are binary variables that indicate the disposition of the switchesin the first and second switch-sets 1, 2 respectively. A binary zeroindicates that the switches in a particular switch-set are open and abinary one indicates that the switches in a particular switch-set areclosed.

During the first pump-state 18, the switches in the first switch-set 1are all closed and the switches in the second switch-set 2 are allopened. The first pump-state 18 consists of a first pump-stateredistribution interval 18A and a first pump-state steady-state interval18B.

The first pump-state 18 begins with the opening of the switches in thesecond switch-set 2 and the closing of the switches in the firstswitch-set 1. This begins a first pump-state redistribution interval 18Acharacterized by a rapid redistribution of charge. For a brief period,the current associated with this charge distribution dwarfs thatassociated with the current through the load circuit 12.

Eventually, the current associated with charge redistribution dies downand the charge pump 10 settles into a first pump-state steady-stateinterval 18B. During the first pump-state steady-state interval 18B,current through the charge pump 10 is dominated by the current throughthe circuit 12. The sum of the time spent in the first pump-statesteady-state interval 18B and the first pump-state redistributioninterval 18A is the first residence time.

During the second pump-state 20, the switches in the first switch-set 1are all opened and the switches in the second switch-set 2 are allclosed. The second pump-state 20 consists of a second pump-stateredistribution interval 20A and a second pump-state steady-stateinterval 20B.

The second pump-state 20 begins with the closing of the switches in thesecond switch-set 2 and the opening of the switches in the firstswitch-set 1. This begins a second pump-state redistribution interval20A characterized by a rapid redistribution of charge. For a briefperiod, the current associated with this charge distribution dwarfs thatassociated with the current through the circuit 12.

Eventually, the current associated with charge redistribution dies downand the charge pump 10 settles into a second pump-state steady-stateinterval 20B. During the second pump-state steady-state interval 20B,current through the charge pump 10 is once again dominated by thecurrent through the load circuit 12. The sum of the time spent in thesecond pump-state steady-state interval 20B and the second pump-stateredistribution interval 20A is the second residence time.

In the course of transitioning between the first and second pump-states18, 20 the voltage at the first phase-node P1 alternates between groundand the voltage at the second terminal 16. Meanwhile, the voltage at thesecond phase-node P2 is 180 degrees out-of-phase with the firstphase-node P1.

Between the first pump-state 18 and the second pump-state 20 there is adead-time interval 21 during which both the switches in the firstswitch-set 1 and the switches in the second switch-set 2 are open.Although not, in principle, required, this dead-time interval is apractical necessity because switches do not transition instantaneously.Thus, it is necessary to provide a margin to avoid the undesirableresult of having switches in the first and second switch-sets 1, 2closed at the same time.

To avoid having to introduce complexity that would only obscureunderstanding of the principles of operation, FIG. 3 shows currentspassing through the pump capacitors C1-C4 in both the first and secondpump-states 18, 20 assuming instantaneous charge-redistribution, nodead-time, and the same non-zero current, I_(x), at the second terminal16 in both pump-states.

In FIG. 3, the time spent in the first pump-state redistributioninterval 18A is t1 a; the time spent in the first pump-statesteady-state interval 18B is t1 b; the time spent in the secondpump-state redistribution interval 20A is t2 a; and the time spent inthe second pump-state steady-state interval 20B is t2 b. Lastly, thetotal length of one cycle is tsw. The first residence time is thereforet1 a+t1 b; and the second residence time is t2 a+t2 b. The assumption ofinstantaneous charge redistribution is manifested by setting t1 a and t2a to zero, resulting in tsw being equal to t1 b+t2 b.

During the first pump-state's steady-state interval 18B, the outer pumpcapacitors C1, C4 carry a current having a magnitude of 0.4·I_(x) whilethe inner pump capacitors C2, C3 carry a current having half of themagnitude carried by the outer pump capacitors C1, C4. This is becausethe inner pump capacitors C2, C3 are in series and the outer pumpcapacitors C1, C4 are by themselves.

During the second pump-state's steady-state interval 20B, each outerpump capacitor C1, C4 is placed in series with one of the inner pumpcapacitors C2, C3, respectively. As a result, each pump capacitor C1-C4carries a current with magnitude 0.5·I_(x). Note that the inner pumpcapacitors C2, C3 are always in series with another pump capacitor,whereas the outer pump capacitors C1, C4 are only in series with anotherpump capacitor during one pump-state.

In the limiting case, where charge is redistributed instantly, thecurrent sources can be removed during the first and second pump-stateredistribution intervals 18A, 20A as in FIG. 3. The amount of chargethat is redistributed depends upon the voltages across the pumpcapacitors C1-C4 prior to a pump-state change.

In general, it is desirable that the net change of charge stored in anypump capacitor C1-C4 be zero during the course of a particular cycle.Otherwise, the level of charge present in the pump capacitors C1-C4 willtend to change over several cycles. This change can ultimately lead toinstability.

Since the quantity of charge transferred is the product of current andthe amount of time the current flows, it follows that one can controlthe quantity of charge transferred to a pump capacitor C1-C4 in anyportion of the cycle by controlling the amount of time that the chargepump 10 spends in that portion of the cycle. This provides a way toensure that the net charge change at each pump capacitor C1-C4 is zeroduring one cycle of the charge pump 10.

If the above constraint is applied to each distinct capacitor current ina charge pump 10, it is possible to generate a system of linearequations in which the times spent in each pump-state are the unknowns.The solution to that system will be the residence times for eachpump-state 18, 20 that avoid instability.

To avoid instability in this example, assuming instantaneous chargeredistribution, the first residence time should be (3/5)·tsw and thesecond residence time should be (2/5)·tsw. This results in an equalamount of charge being transferred from inner pump capacitors C2, C3 tothe first pump capacitor C1 and to the fourth pump capacitor C4 duringthe first pump-state redistribution interval 18A; and zeroredistribution charge during the second pump-state redistributioninterval 20A.

Solutions for various transformation ratios M:N are shown below intabular form:

First Second residence residence time time M:N (sec) (sec) 3:1 2/3 · tsw1/3 · tsw 4:1 1/2 · tsw 1/2 · tsw 5:1 3/5 · tsw 2/5 · tsw 6:1 1/2 · tsw1/2 · tsw 7:1 4/7 · tsw 3/7 · tsw 8:1 1/2 · tsw 1/2 · tsw 9:1 5/9 · tsw4/9 · tsw

Although there is no guarantee that every topology will have a solution,in the case of charge pumps like that in FIG. 1, a solution exists. As aresult of symmetry in current flow during the first and secondpump-state redistribution intervals 18A, 20A, the solution for cases inwhich the transformation ratio is 2k:1 for a positive integer k, thefirst and second residence times will be equal. Additionally, when M isodd and N is 1, the first residence time is tsw·(M+1)/2M while thesecond residence time is tsw·(M−1)/2M.

In the case of a two-phase charge pump 10, such as that shown in FIG. 4,the currents in the first and second pump-state redistribution intervals18A, 20A are inherently symmetric, as shown in FIG. 5. Hence, the firstand second pump-state residence times are equal, unlike in thesingle-phase charge pump 10 shown in FIG. 1, even though both chargepumps have the same transformation ratio M:N.

In general, the first and second pump-state residence times, in the caseof charge pumps like that in FIG. 4, will be equal for anytransformation ratio k:1, where k is a positive integer. This inherentsymmetry provides two-phase charge pumps with an advantage oversingle-phase charge pumps when it comes to stability.

However, analysis based on principles of linear circuit theory is basedon an idealization of the circuit. In practice, for example, due todifferences in the capacitances of the various pump capacitors C1-C4 ofFIG. 1, difference in circuit resistances, (e.g., through transistorswitches and/or signal traces), or inexact timing of the pump-statedurations, it can be difficult to manage charge accretion/depletion inthe pump capacitors C1-C4.

One method for managing charge accretion/depletion is to use feedback tocontrol the residence times. FIG. 6 shows an apparatus to carry out suchcontrol.

For convenience in discussion, FIG. 6 shows the charge pump 10 asdivided into a capacitor array 26 and a switch circuit 28. The capacitorarray 26 includes the pump capacitors C1-C4 and the switch circuit 28includes the first and second switch-sets 1, 2.

A first controller 100 identifies suitable residence times for eachpump-state and stores those in first and second residence-time buffers32, 34. At appropriate times, a first timing-circuit 36A, which includesa clock to keep time, reads the residence-time buffers 32, 34 and causesthe switches in the switch circuit 28 to transition at appropriatetimes.

To determine the correct values of the residence times, the firstcontroller 100 includes a first feedback-circuit 38A. In general, afeedback circuit will have a measured variable and a manipulatedvariable that is to be manipulated in response to the measured variablein an effort to achieve some set point. For the first feedback-circuit38A, the manipulated variable is the pair of residence times and themeasured variable includes a voltage measured at the second terminal 16.Optionally, the measured variable for the first feedback-circuit 38Aincludes measurements obtained from within the charge pump 10, hence thedotted lines within FIG. 6. Examples of such measurements includevoltages across the switches in the first and second switch-sets 1, 2 oracross pump capacitors C1-C4.

In one embodiment, the first feedback-circuit 38A determines values ofresidence time based on measurements taken over a sequence of cycles.The manipulated variable of the first controller 100 is chosen based onhistorical values. A suitable first controller 100 is a PID(proportional-integral-derivative) controller.

An advantage of the first controller 100 shown in FIG. 6 is that thefrequency of the charge pump 10 is fixed.

Another embodiment, shown in FIG. 7, features a second controller 101that is configured to determine residence time values based onmeasurements obtained during the current cycle only. This allowsresidence time values to be determined on a cycle-by-cycle basis. As aresult, the cycle length of the charge pump 10 can vary when using thesecond controller 101.

The second controller 101 includes a second timing-circuit 36B that issimilar to first timing-circuit 36A described in FIG. 6. However, thesecond feedback-circuit 38B is implemented as a threshold logic circuitthat relies on comparing voltages.

A second timing-circuit 36B provides state control signals to the switchcircuit 28. During normal operation, the second timing-circuit 36Bcauses transitions between the first and second pump-states 18, 20 usingnominal first and second residence times. The nominal residence timescan be based on circuit analysis assuming ideal circuit elements.

The second timing-circuit 36B also includes first and second skew-inputs44, 46 to receive corresponding first and second skew signals 48, 50from the second feedback-circuit 38B. The second feedback-circuit 38Basserts one of the first and second skew signals 48, 50 to prematurelyforce the charge pump 10 to change pump-states. The secondfeedback-circuit 38B makes the decision to assert one of the first andsecond skew signals 48, 50 based on feedback from one or more sources.This feedback includes measurements of electrical parameters made at oneor more of: the first terminal 14, the second terminal 16, inside theswitch circuit 28, and inside the capacitor array 26.

If the second feedback-circuit 38B does not assert either skew signal48, 50, then the second timing-circuit 36B causes the charge pump 10 totransition between its first and second pump-states 18, 20 according tothe nominal first and second residence times. If, while the charge pump10 is in the first pump-state 18, the second feedback-circuit 38Bpresents an asserted first skew-signal 48 to the first skew-input 44,the second timing-circuit 36B immediately causes the charge pump 10 totransition from the first pump-state 18 to the second pump-state 20.Conversely, if the second feedback-circuit 38B presents an assertedsecond skew-signal 50 to the second skew-input 46 while the charge pump10 is in the second pump-state 20, the second timing-circuit 36Bimmediately causes the charge pump 10 to transition from the secondpump-state 20 to the first pump-state 18.

An advantage of the second controller 101 is that it reacts immediatelyon a cycle-by-cycle basis. This means that the capacitors inside thecapacitor array 26 can be stabilized faster. In fact, since the secondcontroller 101 operates by prematurely terminating charge pump-states18, 20, the notion of a frequency is not well defined.

Note that shortening the first residence-time while keeping the secondresidence-time constant will generally result in an upward drift and/ora reduction in the amplitude of a lower excursion of voltage ripplepresent at the second terminal 16. Therefore, in one example, when thesecond feedback-circuit 38B detects either a downward drift in theaverage voltage at the second terminal 16 or an excessive lowerexcursion of the voltage ripple at the second terminal 16, it presentsan asserted first skew-signal 48 to the first skew-input 44, thustruncating the first pump-state 18 and shortening the first residencetime.

Conversely, in another example, upon detecting an upward drift and/or anexcessive upward excursion of the ripple at the second terminal 16, thesecond feedback-circuit 38B presents an asserted second skew-signal 50to the second skew-input 46, thereby truncating the second pump-state 20and shortening the second residence time.

As noted above, the second feedback-circuit 38B receives measurements ofelectrical parameters from one or more locations. However, thesemeasurements would be meaningless without some way for the secondfeedback-circuit 38B to know whether the measured values are normal ornot. To remedy this, it is desirable to provide expected values of theseelectrical parameters.

The thresholds provided to the second feedback-circuit 38B can bederived in many ways. One way is through analysis of an ideal circuitcorresponding to the charge pump 10. Another way is through simulationof a physical charge pump 10. Either of these techniques can be used toprovide expected values for an average voltage at the second terminal 16(e.g., as a multiple of the voltage present at the first terminal 14)and expected maximum and minimum values of voltage ripple about thataverage. The second feedback-circuit 38B uses such pre-computed valuesin setting the thresholds at which the skew signals 48, 50 are asserted.Similar logic can be used to implement the first feedback-circuit 38Adiscussed in connection with FIG. 6.

FIG. 8 shows an implementation of the second feedback-circuit 38B shownin FIG. 7 that limits the peaks not valleys. The illustratedfeedback-circuit 38B uses first and second peak-detectors to sense thepeak voltage at the second terminal 16 during the first and secondpump-states 18, 20 respectively. The first peak-detector comprises afirst voltage-buffer and a first diode D1. The second peak-detectorcomprises a second voltage-buffer and a second diode D2. The firstpeak-detector stores the peak voltage during the first pump-state 18 ina first peak-storage capacitor C1. The second peak-detector stores thepeak voltage during the second pump-state 20 in a second peak-storagecapacitor C2.

The stored peak voltages on the first and second peak-storage capacitorsC1, C2 can then be connected to the inputs of corresponding first andsecond peak-voltage comparators by closing first and second switches S1a, S2 a simultaneously. This compares the peak voltages that were storedon the first and second peak-storage capacitors C1, C2 during thepreceding first and second pump-states 18, 20.

If the peak voltage during the first pump-state 18 exceeded that of thesecond pump-state 20 by a first threshold V1, then the firstpeak-voltage comparator asserts the first skew-signal 48. Conversely ifthe peak voltage during the second pump-state 20 exceeded that of thefirst pump-state 18 by a second threshold V2, then the secondpeak-voltage comparator asserts the second skew-signal 50.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 8 relies on the differential voltagebetween pump states in order to decide which of the first and secondskew-signals 48, 50 should be asserted. In particular, each of the firstand second peak-voltage comparators uses the difference between thevoltages that occur during the first and second pump states to decidewhether or not to assert its corresponding skew signal 48, 50.

An alternative embodiment relies on the absolute value of a voltagemeasured during a pump state rather than on the difference betweenvoltages measured during the first and second pump states. Such anembodiment only requires one peak-voltage comparator, an input of whichconnects instead to a reference voltage. As a result, in such anembodiment, whether or not the remaining comparator asserts its skewsignal 48, 50 no longer depends on the differences between voltagesassociated with the first and second pump states. Instead, thecomparator asserts its corresponding skew-signal 48, 50 based on whetherthe absolute value of the voltage measured during the relevant pumpstate exceeds a particular reference value. Such a configuration issimpler to implement and provides adequate control. The simplicity ofimplementation arises in part from the ability to eliminate a comparatorand to eliminate sample-and-hold circuitry that would otherwise benecessary.

The first and second skew-signals 48, 50 from the secondfeedback-circuit 38B make their way to the second timing-circuit 36B, animplementation of which is shown in FIG. 9. The second timing-circuit36B uses these first and second skew-signals 48, 50 to generatenon-overlapping signals that control the first and second switch-sets 1,2. In the illustrated embodiment, there is no gap between the twopump-states 18, 20. The first pump-state 18 starts upon a transitionfrom the second pump-state 20, and vice-versa.

In operation, the circuit shown in FIG. 9 begins the first pump-state 18by closing a first switch S4. This resets a first timing-capacitor C4 tobe low. Meanwhile, a first SR latch U4 is in the reset state. During thefirst pump-state 18, an open second switch S3 allows a firstbias-current 13 to charge a second timing-capacitor C3. Eventually, thefirst bias-current 13 will have deposited enough charge in the secondtiming-capacitor C3 to raise its voltage beyond a firstvoltage-threshold V3 at the input of a first voltage comparator. Whenthis happens, the first voltage comparator outputs a logical high. This,in turn, sets a second SR latch U3, thus terminating the firstpump-state 18. Thus, in the absence of an asserted first skew-signal 48,the residence time of the first pump-state 18 depends upon the firstbias-current 13, the capacitance of the second timing-capacitor C3, andthe first voltage-threshold V3.

Upon terminating the first pump-state 18, the second pump-state 20begins. The operation during the second pump-state 20 is similar to thatdescribed above for the first pump-state 18.

At the start of the second pump-state 20, the first switch S4 opens,thus allowing a second bias-current 14 to charge the firsttiming-capacitor C4. Eventually, the second bias-current 14 will havedeposited enough charge in the first timing-capacitor C4 to raise itsvoltage past a second voltage-threshold V4 at the input of a secondvoltage comparator. In response to this, the second voltage comparatoroutputs a logical high that sets the first SR latch U4, thus terminatingthe second pump-state 20. During the second pump-state 20, the secondtiming-capacitor C3 is reset low when the second switch S3 is closed,and the second SR latch U3 is in the reset state. In the absence of anasserted second skew-signal 50, the residence time of the secondpump-state 20 is set by the second bias-current 14, the capacitance ofthe first timing-capacitor C4, and the second voltage-threshold V4.

The first skew-signal 48 and the output of the first voltage comparatorare inputs to a first OR-gate. Thus, the first pump-state 18 can beterminated in two ways. In the first way, already described above, thefirst pump-state 18 lasts for its nominal residence time and terminatesonce enough charge has accumulated in the second timing-capacitor C3.However, while the second timing-capacitor C3 is still being filled withcharge, the second feedback-circuit 38B may assert the first skew-signal48, thus bringing the first pump-state 18 to a premature end.

It will be apparent from the symmetry of the circuit shown in FIG. 9that the second pump-state 20 can be truncated in the same way byassertion of the second skew-signal 50. The second feedback-circuit 38Bis thus able to shorten the first residence time relative to the secondby asserting the first skew-signal 48 but not the second skew-signal 50.

After each comparison of the peak voltage in the first and secondpump-states 18, 20, the first and second peak-storage capacitors C1, C2of the second feedback-circuit 38B are reset by closing third and fourthswitches S1 b, S2 b and opening the first and second switches S1 a, S2a. Also, the voltage buffers that sense the voltage at the secondterminal 16 can be disabled or tri-stated while the first and secondpeak-storage capacitors C1, C2 are reset. Each sample-compare-resetcycle can occur once per charge pump cycle or once per set of multipleconsecutive charge pump cycles.

In the methods described above, there have been only two pump-states 18,20 and two residence times. However, the principles described are notlimited to merely two pump-states 18, 20. For example, it is possible toimplement a dead time interval during which the charge pump 10 is notdoing anything. This dead time interval can be used in connection withthe embodiment described in FIG. 7 to cause fixed frequency operation.To do so, the dead time interval is set to be the difference between anominal charge pump period and the sum of the first and secondpump-state intervals.

FIG. 10 shows one implementation for carrying out a three-state chargepump that defines a dead time as its third state. The embodiment shownin FIG. 10, features a third controller 102 that uses a thirdfeedback-circuit 38C connected to a third timing-circuit 36C to exercisecontrol over only a second residence time in the second residence-timebuffer 34, and not the first residence time. In this embodiment, thefirst residence time is always set to some nominal value. The thirdcontroller 102 features an input from the switch circuit 28 thatprovides information on the state of the first switch-set 1. Based onthis information, if the third controller 102 determines that theswitches in the first switch-set 1 are open, it has two choices. Thefirst choice is to close the switches in the second switch-set 2. Thisinitiates the second residence time. The second choice is to leave theswitches in the second switch-set 2 open. This initiates a dead-timeinterval. For proper operation, the first and second residence timesmust be non-zero.

The dead-time interval is an example of a third pump-state in which nocharge transfer occurs. However, it is also possible to operate a chargepump in three or more states, each one of which permits charge transferbetween capacitors. An example of such multi-state charge pump controlis given in U.S. Provisional Application 61/953,270, in particular,beginning on page 11 thereof, the contents of which are hereinincorporated by reference.

The rate at which charge accumulates on a capacitor depends on thecurrent and the amount of time the current is allowed to flow. Themethods disclosed thus far manage charge accumulation by controlling thesecond of these two parameters: the amount of time current is allowed toflow. However, it is also possible to control the first of these twoparameters, namely the amount of current that flows. Embodiments thatcarry out this procedure are shown in FIGS. 11 and 12.

FIG. 11 shows a fourth controller 103 similar to the second controller101 shown in FIG. 7 but with no connection between a fourthfeedback-circuit 38D and a fourth timing-circuit 36D. Thus, unlike thesecond controller 101, the fourth controller 103 does not vary the firstand second residence times. Instead, the fourth feedback-circuit 38D ofthe fourth controller 103 adjusts the current drawn by the circuit 12while allowing the first and second residence intervals to be derivedfrom a constant clock signal CLK. The fourth feedback-circuit 38D makesthe decision on an extent to which to vary the current drawn by thecircuit 12 based on feedback measurements from one or more sources.These include measurements of electrical parameters made at one or moreof the first terminal 14, the second terminal 16, inside the switchcircuit 28, and inside the capacitor array 26.

FIG. 11 models the circuit 12 as a current source. Although an idealcurrent source exists only in theory, many real electrical componentsare modeled as behaving as a current source, at least at time scales ofinterest. This is particularly true in cases where the component hassignificant inductance because changing the current through an inductorinvolves integration of voltage over time. Examples of electricalcomponents that are often modeled as a current source or as comprising acurrent source include regulators, such as switching regulators, DCmotors and other circuits that include an inductance, and an IDAC, whichis an active circuit that sets the current through light-emittingdiodes.

During operation of the charge pump 10, there exists charge transferbetween the charge pump 10 and the circuit 12. In some cases, thischarge transfer arises because charge flows from the circuit 12 to thecharge pump 10. In other cases, this charge transfer arises becausecharge flows from the charge pump 10 to the circuit 12. Since thecircuit 12 can be viewed as the charge pump's load, this flow of charge,regardless of its direction, will be referred to herein as the “loadcurrent.”

Each cycle includes two or more pump states. During each pump state, itis possible to transfer a bolus of charge. For simplicity, the case of acycle with two states is described below. The general principle is,however, easily transferrable to the case in which a cycle has more thantwo states.

In the case of a cycle with two pump states, each cycle includes thetransfer of two boluses of charge: a first charge bolus during thecycle's first pump state 18 and a second charge bolus during the cycle'ssecond pump state 20. The amounts of charge in the first and secondcharge boluses are given respectively by the integrals of the loadcurrent during the first pump state 18 and during the second pump state20.

The first and second boluses of transferred charge that arise during thecourse of one cycle do not necessarily have equal amounts of charge. Thedifference between the amounts of charge carried by the two boluses willbe referred to herein as the “interstate differential” for thatcharge-pump cycle. The aggregate of the charge contained by the firstand second boluses will be referred to as the “interstate sum” for thatcharge-pump cycle.

To discourage instability that may arise from charge accretion ordepletion during multiple cycles, it is useful to control the interstatedifferential of each cycle. In the ideal case, assuming no variations incomponent values within the circuit, this interstate differential shouldremain zero for every cycle. However, to accommodate such variationsthat may have arisen as a result of manufacturing variations, varyingenvironmental conditions during operation, such as temperature, oraging, there may be cases in which the differential should be maintainedat some constant non-zero value.

Since the amounts of charge in the first and second bolus are whatcontrol the value of the interstate differential, a good way to controlthe value of the interstate differential is to control the amounts ofcharge contained in the first and second charge boluses.

One way to control the sizes of the first and second boluses is tocontrol the load current that flows during each pump state. Thus, tomake the first bolus have more charge, one increases the current thatflows during the first pump state. To make the first bolus have lesscharge, one decreases the current that flows during the first pumpstate. An advantage of this approach is that the durations of the firstand second pump states remain the same.

However, not all load currents are amenable to being controlled in thisway.

An alternative way to control the amount of charge contained in thefirst and second charge boluses is to instead weight the load current bya weighting function. By properly controlling this weighting function,the net effect, at least as far as the charge pump 10 is concerned, willbe similar to controlling the load current directly. In that case, thecharge contained in each of the first and second boluses will be givenby integrating the product of this weighting function and the loadcurrent.

One weighting function that is particularly easy to implement is abinary function that switches between being zero and unity.Implementations of this type of weighting function is described inconnection with FIGS. 14 and 15.

FIG. 12 shows a fifth controller 104 that is similar to the fourthcontroller 103 except that instead of controlling current drawn by acircuit 12, the fifth controller 104 controls current through aregulator 56, which is modeled in the illustrated circuit as a currentsource. In the fifth controller 104, a fifth timing-circuit 36E respondsonly to a clock signal CLK. A fifth feedback-circuit 38E decides howmuch to vary the current through the regulator 56 based on feedbackmeasurements from one or more sources. These include measurements ofelectrical parameters made at one or more of the first terminal 14, thesecond terminal 16, inside the switch circuit 28, and inside thecapacitor array 26.

The control methods described above are not mutually exclusive. As such,it is possible to implement hybrid controllers that implement two ormore of the control methods described above.

One reason that charge accretion/depletion becomes a problem is that, asa practical matter, it is next to impossible to manufacture pumpcapacitors C1-C4 that all have the same desired capacitance. Referringnow to FIG. 13, a remedy for this is to compensate for an error in thevalue of a pump capacitor's capacitance by switching other capacitors inseries or in parallel with that pump capacitor. These capacitors arereferred to as “trim” capacitors because they trim a capacitance to adesired value. The term “trim” is not be construed as “reducing” butrather in the sense of making fine adjustments in any direction in aneffort to attain a desired value. Capacitance of a pump capacitor can beraised or lowered by connecting another capacitor in parallel or inseries respectively.

FIG. 13 shows a sixth controller 105 having a sixth timing-circuit 36Fand a sixth feedback-circuit 38F. The sixth controller 105 connects to atrim-capacitor network 70 having two trim capacitors C5, C6, either oneof which can be placed in parallel with the fourth pump capacitor C4.

Although only two trim capacitors C5, C6 are shown, a practicaltrim-capacitor network 70 has an assortment of capacitors with variousvalues that can be selectively switched in series or in parallel withthe fourth pump capacitor C4. The illustrated trim-capacitor network 70is shown connecting one trim capacitor C6 in parallel with the pumpcapacitor C4, thus raising the effective capacitance of the combination.Only two trim capacitors C5, C6 are shown for clarity. However, it is asimple matter to add more, thus allowing greater variability inadjustment. In addition, for the sake of simplicity, the trim-capacitornetwork 70 shown only places trim capacitors C5, C6 in parallel.However, it is a relatively simple matter to design a circuit to switchtrim capacitors C5, C6 in series with the fourth pump capacitor C4.Additionally, in FIG. 13, a trim-capacitor network 70 is shown only forthe fourth pump capacitor C4. In practice, each pump capacitor C1-C4would have its own trim-capacitor network 70.

By switching in the proper combination of trim capacitors in thetrim-capacitor network 70, the overall capacitance of the pump capacitorC4 combined with that of the trim capacitors C5, C6 can be made toapproach or even equal a target value. This trimming procedure may onlyneed to be carried out once in the lifetime of the charge pump 10 or canbe carried out during normal operation because the capacitance ofpractical capacitors normally varies with the voltage across theirterminals as well as temperature.

Rather than being used once to adjust for manufacturing errors, atrim-capacitor network 70 as shown can also be used during operation ofthe circuit as a way to control the quantity of charge on a particularpump capacitor C4 by transferring charge between a particular capacitor,e.g. the pump capacitor C4, and some other charge repository, such as atrim capacitor C5, C6 within the trim-capacitor network 70, or to theultimate repository, which is ground. This provides an alternative wayto adjust the charge on each capacitor in an effort to restore all pumpcapacitors to their respective initial voltages at the start of a chargepump cycle.

Alternately, a current sink could be coupled to each pump capacitorC1-C4 allowing it to bleed any excess charge to another location ormultiple locations, such as the first terminal 14, the second terminal16, a terminal inside the switch circuit 28, a terminal inside thecapacitor array 26, and even ground.

FIG. 14 shows another use for the trim-capacitor network 70. In FIG. 14,a seventh controller 106 having a seventh timing-circuit 36G and aseventh feedback-circuit 38G causes the trim-capacitor network 70 to actas a stabilizing capacitance between the charge pump 10 and the circuit12. To reduce losses, the stabilizing capacitance is preferably justsufficient to stabilize the charge pump 10. A larger stabilizingcapacitance value than necessary may increase power loss during chargepump operation. Because of manufacturing tolerances, it will, ingeneral, not be possible to either predict the required value of thestabilizing capacitance or, even if a prediction were available, toensure that it has the required value over all operating conditions.Thus, one can use a technique similar to that described in connectionwith FIG. 13 to switch a selected trim capacitor C5, C6 from thetrim-capacitor network to act as a stabilizing capacitance.

The embodiment shown in FIG. 14 also provides a way for the seventhcontroller 106 to control the sizes of the first and second chargeboluses. For example, if, during the first pump state 18, the switchconnected to the second terminal 16 remains open, then charge has noplace to flow other than between the charge pump 10 and the circuit 12.As a result, it becomes part of the first bolus. Once that switchcloses, the relevant trim capacitor C6, C7 begins to sink charge. Thischarge no longer contributes to the first bolus.

Eventually, the trim capacitors C6, C7 will no longer sink charge andcharge will once again flow between the charge pump 10 and the circuit12. To extend the time during which the trim capacitors C6, C7 can sinkcharge that would otherwise be transferred between the charge pump 10and the circuit 12, it is possible to increase the capacitance of one orboth trim capacitors C6, C7. Or, in the limit, it is possible toeliminate them altogether and sink the charge to ground instead.

FIG. 15 shows a power converter 109 similar to that shown in FIG. 14.Like the power converter shown in FIG. 14, the power converter 109 shownin FIG. 15 transforms a first voltage present at a first terminal 14into a second voltage present at a third terminal 15. The powerconverter includes a charge pump 10 connected to a circuit 12. Thecircuit 12 connects to an intermediate terminal 16 at which the chargepump 10 maintains an intermediate voltage.

As shown in FIG. 15, the circuit 12 includes a current source 64. Asuitable implementation of a current source 64 would be an inductance.The circuit 12 also includes an output capacitor 65 across which thesecond voltage, which is that present at the third terminal 15, can bemaintained.

The circuit 12 further includes a switch 62 that switches between firstand second states. In the first state, the switch 62 connects thecurrent source 64 to the charge pump 10. In the second state, the switchgrounds the current source 64. By controlling the switch 62, it ispossible to define a time-varying function that transitions between thevalues of zero and unity when the switch is in the second and firststates respectively. This time-varying function serves as a weightingfunction for controlling the interstate differential. Because it isimplemented by the switch, this weighting function is referred to hereinas the “switch function.”

In FIG. 15, an eighth controller 107 having an eighth timing-circuit 36Hand an eighth feedback-circuit 38H implements a switch function by usingthe switch 62 to selectively interrupt the electrical connection betweenthe current source 64 and the charge pump 10. Such a switch 62 connectsthe current source 64 to the charge pump 10 for selected intervalsduring a particular pump state 18, 20. These intervals are potentiallyshorter than the durations of the respective pump state 18, 20.

In the foregoing case, the product of this switch function and the loadcurrent defines an integrand that, when integrated over the relevantpump state 18, 20, governs how much charge is in either the first chargebolus or second charge bolus.

To achieve a constant interstate differential, non-zero or otherwise,the eighth controller 107 operates the switch 62 in such a way that theamount of charge in the first bolus differs from the amount in thesecond bolus by the desired interstate differential.

Closing the switch 62 during the charge pump's first pump-state 18permits charge to flow between the charge pump 10 and the circuit 12during the first pump-state 18. On the other hand, opening the switch 62during the first pump state 18 suppresses charge flow between thecircuit 12 and the charge pump 10 during the first pump-state 18. It istherefore possible to use the switch 62 to meter the amount of chargetransferred between the charge pump 10 and the circuit 12 during thefirst pump state 18 by controlling how long the switch 62 remains openduring the first pump state 18. A similar approach is used to meter theamount of charge that is taken from or supplied to the charge pump 10during the second pump state 20. This results in a different way tocontrol the interstate differential.

In the ideal case, the interstate differential will be zero. This can beachieved by leaving the switch 62 closed during the first pump state 18for a first interval and leaving the switch 62 closed during the secondpump state 18 for a second interval, with the first interval and thesecond interval being selected such that the integral of the weightedload-current during the first interval is equal to the integral of theweighted load-current during the second interval. In the limiting caseof a constant average load current during the relevant interval, thiscan be achieved by making the first and second intervals equal.

On the other hand, there may be instances in which a non-zero interstatedifferential will be required to suppress charge accretion or depletionduring multiple cycles. This too can be achieved by leaving the switch62 closed during the first pump state 18 for a first interval andleaving the switch 62 closed during the second pump state 18 for asecond interval. In this case, the eighth controller 107 controls thelengths of the first interval and the second interval such that theintegral of the weighted load-current during the first interval differsfrom integral of the weighted load-current during the second interval bythe desired non-zero differential. Assuming constant averageload-current, this can be achieved by making the ratio between the firstand second intervals match the ratio between the total amounts of chargetransferred during the first and second pump states 18, 20.

The foregoing analysis presupposes that the eighth controller 107 onlycloses the switch once during the first pump state 18 and only onceduring the second pump state 20. However, this is not necessary. Theremay be cases in which the eighth controller 107 opens and closes theswitch several times in the course of a single pump state 18, 20. Theremay also be several distinct pump states. After all, the importantquantity is the integral evaluated during the particular pump state 18,20 and not the details of how the integral is arrived at.

To provide effective control, the eighth controller 107 must be able todo more than just change an interstate differential. It must have somebasis for knowing when the interstate differential needs to be changed,and preferably in what direction, and even more preferably, by how much.

To provide the eighth controller 107 with some basis for controlling theinterstate differential, a sensor path 66 connected to the charge pump10 provides a balancing signal to the eighth feedback-circuit 38H. Insome embodiments, the sensor path 66 connects to the charge pump'ssecond terminal 16.

The balancing signal is a periodic waveform having periods, each ofwhich has a maximum and a minimum. When the interstate differential isat its correct value, the distance between the maxima and the minima ofa period remains constant. Otherwise, it tends to drift over time.Whether the maxima and minima are drifting together or apart providesthe eighth feedback-circuit 38H with a basis for recognizing animbalance and a basis for knowing what to do about it. In response, theeighth feedback-circuit 38H causes the switch 62 to adjust the amount ofcharge delivered during each of the first and second pump states 18, 20to restore the interstate differential to the correct value as needed.

The eighth feedback-circuit 38H maintains the correct interstatedifferential by modulating the duty cycle of the switch 62. The eighthfeedback-circuit 38H does so by varying the lengths of the timesavailable for charging and discharging the charge pump 10. To do so, theeighth feedback-circuit 38H provides a modulated duty-cycle control path72 that carries a duty-cycle control signal. The duty-cycle controlsignal provides need-based charge transfer among charge-pump states byadaptively controlling the duty cycle of the switch 62 based on how muchcharge transfer is required in each of the first and second pump-states18, 20 to achieve charge balancing.

The effect of the eighth feedback-circuit 38H can be understood bycareful study of FIGS. 17 and 18 during operation of a series-parallelcharge pump 10 shown in FIG. 16. Although a series-parallel pump isshown in FIG. 16, the principle described in connection with FIGS. 17and 18 applies to other charge pump topologies including, for example,Dickson pumps.

The series-parallel charge pump 10 shown in FIG. 16 transitions betweena first pump state 18 in which the capacitors are in series and a secondpump state 20 in which the capacitors are in parallel. An inductorimplements the current source 14 and a pair of complementary transistorsimplements the switch 62.

In both FIGS. 17 and 18, the jagged line and the smooth line bothrepresent the current through the current source 64 (i.e., inductor inthe figures) as a function of time. The jagged line shows the currentsource's “instantaneous current 74.” The smooth line shows the currentsource's average current 76, which is obtained by integrating thecurrent source's instantaneous current 74 over an interval and thendividing by the duration of that interval. As shown in the figure, thecurrent source's average current 76 is intended to be constant.

The vertical bars define first, second, and third intervals 78, 80, 82along the time axis. These intervals correspond to particular states ofthe switch 62. The third interval 82 comes between a first interval 78and a second interval 80. In some cases, a first interval 78 precedes athird interval 82 and a second interval 80 follows the third interval82. However, in other cases, a second interval 80 precedes a thirdinterval 82 and a first interval 78 follows the third interval 82.

In each of the first intervals 78, the switch 62 is in its firstswitch-state and the charge pump 10 is in its first pump-state 18. Ineach of the second intervals 80, the switch 62 is in its firstswitch-state and the charge pump 10 is in its second pump-state 20. Ineach of the third intervals 82, the switch 62 is in its secondswitch-state and the charge pump 10 is in whatever pump state it was induring the interval that preceded the third interval 82.

During the course of its operation, the amount of charge transferredwhen the charge pump 10 is in its first pump-state 18 is the integral ofthe current source's instantaneous current 74 during all the firstintervals 78. The amount of charge transferred when the charge pump 10is in its second pump-state 20 is the integral of the current source'sinstantaneous current 74 during all the second intervals 80.

As shown in FIGS. 17 and 18, it is possible to vary the instantaneouscurrent 74 at each point while still maintaining a constant averagecurrent 76. However, a byproduct of doing so is an increased spreadbetween the maximum and minimum values of the current source'sinstantaneous current 74. This increased spread manifests itself as anincreased ripple in a voltage maintained by a power converter thatincludes the charge pump 10 and the circuit 12 as constituents thereof.

In FIG. 17 the first intervals 78 and second intervals 80 all have thesame length. Assuming that the averages of the current source's currentare equal during the first and second intervals 78, 80, this means thatinterstate differential is zero. In this case, the spread between themaximum and minimum values of the current source's instantaneous current74 is at its lowest, thus minimizing ripple in a voltage beingmaintained by the power converter.

In FIG. 18, the eighth feedback-circuit 38H has determined that notenough charge had previously been transferred while the charge pump 10was in its first pump-state 18 to achieve charge balancing. As a result,the eighth feedback-circuit 38H has modulated the duty cycle of theswitch 62 so as to lengthen the first intervals 78 and to shorten thesecond intervals 82. This expands the time available for charge transferduring the first intervals 78 at the expense the second intervals 82. Onthe other hand, this also increases the spread between maximum andminimum values of the instantaneous current-source current 74, thusintroducing greater ripple in a voltage being maintained by the powerconverter.

The eighth feedback-circuit 38H thus causes more charge to betransferred during the first pump-state 18 than during the secondpump-state 20. It does so by arranging the duty cycle of the switch 62such that the switch 62 spends more of its time in the firstswitch-state.

In one limiting case, it is possible to completely suppress chargetransfer for the entire duration of a charge-pump state by simplykeeping the switch 62 in the second switch-state for the duration of theentire charge-pump state. In another limiting case, it is possible tomaximize charge transfer by leaving the switch 62 in its firstswitch-state for the entire duration of the charge-pump state. Inbetween these two extremes, the eighth feedback-circuit 38H preciselymeters the amount of charge transfer during a particular charge-pumpstate by modulating the duty cycle of the switch 62. The granularitywith which the amount of charge transfer can be controlled isapproximately the product of the current source's instantaneous current74 at the time that charge transfer is carried out and the shortestpossible interval during which the switch 62 can be in its firstswitch-state.

In placing the correct duty-cycle control signal on the duty-cyclecontrol path 72, the eighth feedback-circuit 38H attempts to maintain aconstant interstate differential within the charge pump 10.

The eighth feedback-circuit 38H has only one tool available to it: theduty cycle. Using just this one tool, the eighth feedback-circuit 38Hmust both control the average voltage maintained by the power converterand, while it is doing so, the interstate differential.

The eighth feedback-circuit's ability to juggle these two tasks arisesfrom what could be regarded as a disadvantage: the delay associated withattempting to control the output voltage. Although the duty cycle of theswitch 62 affects the voltage being maintained by the power converter,the effect is slow to occur.

When the eighth feedback-circuit 38H changes the duty cycle during afirst pump state 18, the average inductor current will change during thefirst interval 78. In principle, this should disturb the second voltage,which is that present at the third terminal 15. However, the effect isquite small. In general, a great many charge-pump cycles must elapsebefore a change in the switch's duty cycle during the first pump state18 results in a noticeable effect at the third terminal 15.

In contrast, a change in duty cycle has an almost immediate effect onthe interstate differential. Therefore, it is in principle possible toat least sporadically control interstate differential withoutsignificantly disturbing the voltage maintained by the power converter.However, if this is done cycle after cycle for long enough, the voltagemaintained by the power converter is likely to be noticeably disturbed.

However, if after having altered the duty cycle for the first pump state18, the eighth feedback-circuit 38H judiciously changes the duty cycleduring the second pump state 20, then the inductor current, whenaveraged over the first, second, and third time intervals 78, 80, 82 inFIGS. 17 and 18, does not change. This makes it possible to alter theduty cycle of the switch 62 in a way that promotes a constant interstatedifferential without causing any perceptible effect on the voltage atsecond terminal 15.

As shown in FIG. 15, a feedback path 84 extends between the thirdterminal 15 and the eighth feedback-circuit 38H. This feedback path 84provides a feedback signal indicative of the voltage at the secondterminal 15. The feedback-circuit 38H relies on this feedback signal,the balance signal from the sensor path 66, and a switch signalindicative of the state of the switch 62.

FIG. 19 shows a particular implementation of the eighth feedback-circuit38H for controlling both interstate differential and the voltagemaintained by the power converter at the same time. In the particularimplementation show, the eighth feedback-circuit 38H includes acomparator 86, a compensation circuit 88, an adder 90, a modulator 92, aregulator-signal source 94, and a modulating-signal source 96.

In operation, a signal indicative of the voltage at the second terminal15 passes through the compensation circuit 88 by way of the feedbackpath 84. The compensation circuit 88 then provides a compensatedfeedback signal to the adder 90.

Meanwhile, the balancing signal arrives from the charge pump 10 by wayof the sensor path 66 and passes into the modulator 92 where it is mixedwith a modulating signal provided by the modulating-signal source 96 toform a modulated balancing-signal. The modulating signal has a frequencythat is either the same as the charge pump's frequency or that is aharmonic of the charge pump's frequency.

The modulator 92 then provides the modulated balancing-signal to theadder 90, which uses it to offset the compensated feedback signal. Thisresults in an offset signal.

The direction of this offset, namely whether the value of thecompensated feedback signal increases or decreases, determines whetherthe duty cycle will ultimately increase or decrease. The adder 90 thushas the effect of causing a high-frequency tremor to piggyback on thecompensated feedback signal. Thus, the compensated feedback signal isable to rise and fall slowly to maintain a constant average voltage atthe third terminal 15 while at the same time carrying a high-frequencytremor that can be used to control the interstate differential.

The adder 90 provides the offset signal to a first input 98 of thecomparator 86. At the same time, the regulator-signal source 94 providesa regulator signal to a second input 99 of the comparator 86. An outputof the comparator places the resulting duty-cycle control signal on theduty-cycle control path 72.

In some embodiments, the regulator-signal source 94 is aninternally-generated sawtooth that causes the switch 62 to change stateupon crossing a threshold (i.e., first input 98 of the comparator 86).In that case, if the sawtooth is symmetric about the threshold, the dutycycle will be 50%. This is because the amount of time that the sawtoothspends above the threshold equals the amount of time it spends below thethreshold.

On the other hand, if one were to cause a vertical offset between thesawtooth and this threshold the sawtooth would increase the amount oftime that it spends on one side of the threshold while concomitantlydecreasing the amount of time that it spends on the other side of thethreshold. This amounts to changing the duty cycle.

The compensated feedback-signal from the compensation circuit 88 is whatwould slowly raise and lower this threshold. It is by doing so that itcontrols the duty cycle in a way that causes the power converter tomaintain a constant average voltage. What the adder 90 ultimately doesis to superimpose a high-frequency tremor on this slowly changingthreshold so as to be able to modulate the duty cycle on acycle-by-cycle basis even as the compensation circuit 88 causes thethreshold to change at a more tidal pace.

In other embodiments, the duty-cycle control signal is based in part ona measurement of current between the current source 64 (e.g., inductorcurrent) and the switch 62. However, in either case, the principle isthe same. By offsetting the compensated feedback signal by an amountthat depends on the need to correct the interstate differential, it ispossible to modulate the duty cycle of the switch 62 to maintain aconstant interstate differential while also causing the power converterto maintain a constant average voltage.

Since the control over the duty cycle depends on a vertical offsetbetween a periodic waveform (e.g., sawtooth) and a threshold, it doesnot matter where the offset occurs.

In FIG. 19, the adder 90 offsets the compensated feedback-signal.However, it is also possible to place the adder 90 at the output of theregulator-signal source 94 instead, as shown in FIG. 20. This wouldcause an offset to the regulator signal instead. Or, it is possible tooffset both the regulator signal and the compensated feedback-signal insuch a way that the sum of the two offsets results in the desiredoffset. Ultimately, what matters is that the signals presented to thefirst and second inputs 98, 99 of the comparator 86 cooperate to cause avertical offset between the regulator signal and some threshold.

The signal provided to the modulator 92 is ultimately based on theanswers to two questions. The first question is the fundamental questionof whether a correction is even required. The second question, whichcomes into play only if the first question is answered in theaffirmative, is what sort of correction is required.

To answer these questions, it is useful to provide a decoder 110 thatmodifies the signal received along the sensor path 66 prior to havingthe modulator 92 mix that signal with the output of themodulating-signal source 96. FIG. 21 shows one such decoder 110 in whichthe output signal is zero if no correction is needed and the output'ssign determines which type of correction is required.

A variety of implementations are possible for the decoder 110, of whichonly one is shown. However, in all these implementations, the decoder'soutput is ultimately a signal that is a function of ripple.

The decoder's output signal can be an analog signal, in which case thedecoder is carrying out analog modulation. For example, the output ofthe decoder 110 could be an amplified analog signal having a featurethat is indicative of ripple. Or it can be a digital signal that encodesa feature indicative of ripple using some combination of bit values. Insome embodiments, the decoder 110 carries out a mix of analog anddigital modulation.

In some embodiments, a decoder 110 can include a digital comparator thatlooks at the value of a ripple function at those points at which thefirst derivative of the ripple function is zero and uses the differencebetween such values as a basis for control. In other embodiments, adecoder 110 could also rely on a signal comparator, in which case itidentifies points at which the first derivative of a ripple signal onthe sensor path 66 is zero, with the sign of the second derivative beingdependent on the direction of power flow. In yet other embodiments, thedecoder 110 inspects only differential peaks. In other embodiments, thedecoder 110 inspects values at peaks of the ripple function and/orvalues at valleys of the ripple function.

In the particular embodiment shown in FIG. 21, a decoder 110 includes afirst input 112 and a second input 114. The first input 112 connects tothe sensor path 66. The second input 114 connects to a phase signal 116.

The phase signal 116 is typically a square wave. This phase signal 116controls which of two options should be exercised to restore theinterstate differential to the correct value. In some embodiments, thephase signal 116 is the same as the output of the modulating-signalsource 96.

Within the decoder 110 is a comparator 118, a first switch 120, a secondswitch 122, a first voltage-source 124, a second voltage-source 126, anda third voltage-source 128.

The first voltage-source 124 maintains a reference voltage. The secondvoltage-source 126 and the third voltage-source 128 have equal voltagesbut with opposite signs. These two voltages represent the two optionsavailable to restore the interstate differential to its correct value,namely either reducing the current drawn or increasing the currentdrawn.

The comparator has a first input 130, a second input 132, and an output134. The first input 130 receives the voltage on the sensor path 66. Thesecond input 132 is maintained at a reference voltage by the firstvoltage-source 124. The output 134 carries a signal that is indicativeof whether any correction is needed. This signal controls the firstswitch 120. If no correction is needed, the first switch 120 connects toground. Otherwise the first switch 120 connects to either the second orthird voltage source 126, 128.

In operation, the comparator 118 compares the reference voltage with thevoltage received on the sensor path 66 and uses the result of thecomparison to connect the first switch 120 to either ground or two oneof the second and third voltage-sources 126, 128. This, in turn,controls the balancing signal provided to the modulator 92.

In a typical embodiment, when the voltage at the first terminal 130 ofthe comparator 118 remains above the reference voltage, the first switch120 remains connected to ground. However, once the voltage at the secondterminal 16 falls below the reference voltage, the first switch 120connects to one of the second and third voltage sources 126, 128.

Although it is possible to implement a digital loop with nocompensation, it is often useful to have a compensation or filteringstage 136 prior to having the decoder's output reach the modulator 92.

FIGS. 10-15 and FIGS. 6 and 7 features a charge pump 10 that isimplemented as a series-parallel switched-capacitor circuit and acircuit 12 that is implemented as a buck converter. However, theprinciples described herein are also applicable when other kinds ofswitched-capacitor circuits and regulators.

For example, instead of a series-parallel implementation as shown in thefigures, it is possible to implement the charge pump 10 using manydifferent charge pump topologies such as a Ladder, a Dickson, a cascademultiplier, including a two-phase or multi-phase cascade multiplier, aFibonacci, and a Doubler.

Similarly, it is possible to implement the circuit 12 as a regulator 56other than a Buck converter. Among these are Boost converters,Buck-Boost converters, non-inverting Buck-Boost converters, Cukconverters, SEPIC converters, resonant converters, multi-levelconverters, Flyback converters, Forward converters, and Full Bridgeconverters.

In the figures, the circuit 12 follows the charge pump 10. However, theprinciples described herein do not require that this be the case. It ispossible, for example, for the circuit 12 to precede the charge pump 10.For example, in one embodiment, the charge pump 10 is a two-phasecascade-multiplier and the circuit 12 is a boost converter that precedesthe cascade multiplier.

Having described the invention, and a preferred embodiment thereof, whatis claimed as new, and secured by letters patent is

1.-19. (canceled)
 20. An apparatus to convert a first voltage into asecond voltage, the apparatus comprising: a power converter having aninput and an output ports, the power converter comprising a charge pumpto implement one or more operating cycles, the charge pump to comprise afirst and a second nodes; a clock to generate a clock signal; acontroller to generate one or more control signals based, at least inpart, on the clock signal to control a plurality of switches tofacilitate one or more transitions between a first and a second pumpstates, wherein the first and the second pump states to comprise a fulloperating cycle of the one or more operating cycles, wherein the chargepump to comprise a plurality of pump capacitors coupled along a chargetransfer path to at least some of the plurality of switches between thefirst and the second nodes of the charge pump, the second node of thecharge pump to be coupled a load circuit, wherein the controller tocontrol at least one switch of the plurality of switches so as to adjusta first and/or a second pump state redistribution interval of the chargepump based, at least in part, on one or more measurement signals to beobtained from the charge pump.
 21. The apparatus of claim 20, whereinthe first and/or the second pump state redistribution interval tocomprise a first and/or a second residence time.
 22. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein at least one of the one or more measurement signals tobe obtained at the second node of the charge pump.
 23. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein at least one of the one or more measurement signals tofacilitate operating the at least one switch of the plurality ofswitches so as to adjust an amount of charge to be delivered to at leastone capacitor of the plurality of pump capacitors during the firstand/or the second pump state redistribution interval.
 24. The apparatusof claim 23, wherein the amount of charge to be delivered to the atleast one capacitor of the plurality of pump capacitors during the firstand/or the second pump state redistribution interval is to facilitaterestoring an interstate differential to a particular value.
 25. Theapparatus of claim 20, wherein, during operation of the power converter,a first and a second currents to flow between the charge pump and theload circuit during the first and/or the second pump stateredistribution interval.
 26. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein thecontroller to adjust the first and the second currents based, at leastin part, on the one or more measurement signals.
 27. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein the one or more measurement signals to facilitatereduction of a charge imbalance.
 28. The apparatus of claim 20, whereinthe controller to implement a deadtime interval between the first andthe second pump state redistribution intervals.
 29. The apparatus ofclaim 20, wherein the load circuit to comprise at least one of thefollowing: a buck converter; a boost converter; a buck-boost converter;a Cuk converter; a SEPIC converter; a resonant converter; a multi-levelconverter; a flyback converter; a forward converter; and/or a fullbridge converter.
 30. An apparatus comprising: a clock to generate oneor more clock signals; a power converter having a controller, thecontroller to control at least a deadtime interval based, at least inpart, on the clock signals; a charge pump comprising a capacitor arrayhaving a first and a second node, and a plurality of switches operableby the controller to facilitate a plurality of pump capacitors of thecapacitor array cycling through a set of cycles, the controller tocomprise a modulator, an adder, and a comparator, the comparator tocompare a reference voltage with a voltage at the second node to controlat least one balancing signal to be provided to the modulator tofacilitate restoration of an interstate charge differential to aparticular value.
 31. The apparatus of claim 30, wherein the controllerto receives a first signal and a second signal, wherein the first signalto facilitate the controller to modulate a duty cycle of a switch of theplurality of switches that couple the charge pump to at least oneadditional circuit to achieve a constant interstate charge differentialwithin the charge pump.
 32. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein thesecond signal to facilitate modulating the duty cycle such that thepower converter to maintain a constant average voltage.
 33. Theapparatus of claim 31, wherein the modulator to modulate the firstsignal with a periodic waveform to generate a modulated first signal,wherein the adder to offset a signal indicative of operation of theswitch by the modulated first signal, and wherein the comparator tocompares the offset signal with the second signal and to outputs aduty-cycle control signal based, at least in part, on the comparison.34. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein the controller to receive a firstsignal and a second signal, wherein the first signal to facilitate thecontroller to modulate a duty cycle of a switch that couples the chargepump to the at least one additional circuit to achieve a constantinterstate differential within the charge pump.
 35. The apparatus ofclaim 34, wherein the second signal to facilitate modulating the dutycycle to maintain a constant average voltage.
 36. The apparatus of claim35, wherein the modulator to modulate the first signal with a periodicwaveform so as to generate a modulated first signal, wherein the adderto offset the second signal by the modulated first signal so as togenerate an offset signal, and wherein the comparator to compare theoffset signal with a signal indicative of operation of the switch and tooutput a duty-cycle control signal based, at least in part, on thecomparison.